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文章：香蕉的历史、纸币发展、味觉和嗅觉、地图发展史

香蕉的历史

Banana is the common name used for herbaceous plants in the genus Musa, which because of their size and structure, are often mistaken for trees. Bananas are cultivated for their fruit, which bears the same name, and to a lesser extent as ornamental plants. Bananas are of the family Musaceae. Globally, bananas rank fourth after rice, wheat and maize in human food production; they are grown in 130 countries worldwide, more than any other fruit crop. Bananas are native to tropical southeastern Asia but are widely cultivated in tropical regions. In popular culture and commerce, "banana" usually refers to the soft, sweet "dessert" bananas that are usually eaten raw. The bananas from a group of cultivars with firmer, starchier fruit, generally used in cooking rather than eaten raw, are typically known as plantains.

The main or upright growth is called a pseudostem, which, when mature, will obtain a height of 2–8 m (varies between different cultivars), with leaves of up to 3.5 m in length. Each pseudostem produces a single bunch of bananas, before dying and being replaced by a new pseudostem. The base of the plant is a rhizome (known as a corm). Corms are perennial, with a productive lifespan of 15 years or more.

The term banana is applied to both the plant and its elongated fruit (technically a false berry) which grow in hanging clusters, with up to 20 fruit to a tier (called a hand), and 5-20 tiers to a bunch. The total of the hanging clusters is known as a bunch, or commercially as a "banana stem", and can weigh from 30–50 kg. The fruit averages 125g, of which approximately 75% is water and 25% dry matter content. Bananas are a valuable source of Vitamin A, Vitamin C, and potassium.

Although the wild species have fruits with numerous large, hard seeds, virtually all culinary bananas have seedless fruits. Bananas are classified either as dessert bananas (meaning they are yellow and fully ripe when eaten) or as green cooking bananas. Almost all export bananas are of the dessert types; however, only about 10-15% of all production is for export, with the U.S. and EU being the dominant buyers.

History of banana

Banana bunch

The domestication of bananas took place in southeastern Asia. Many species of wild bananas still occur in New Guinea, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines. Recent archaeological and palaeoenvironmental evidence at Kuk Swamp in the Western Highlands Province of Papua New Guinea suggests that banana cultivation there goes back to at least 5000 BC, and possibly to 8000 BC. This would make the New Guinean highlands the place where bananas were first domesticated. It is likely that other species of wild bananas were later also domesticated elsewhere in southeastern Asia.

The banana is mentioned for the first time in written history in Buddhist texts in 600 BC. Alexander the Great discovered the taste of the banana in the valleys of India in 327 BC. The existence of an organized banana plantation could be found in China in 200 AD. In 650 AD, Islamic conquerors brought the banana to Palestine. Arab merchants eventually spread bananas over much of Africa. The word banana is of West African origin, and passed into English via Spanish or Portuguese.

In 15th and 16th century, Portuguese colonists started banana plantations in the Atlantic Islands, Brazil, and western Africa. As late as the Victorian Era, bananas were not widely known in Europe, although they were available via merchant trade. Jules Verne references bananas with detailed descriptions so as not to confuse readers in his book Around the World in Eighty Days (1872).

纸币发展

History

Paper money originated in two forms: drafts, which are receipts for value held on account, and "bills", which were issued with a promise to convert at a later date.

Money is based on the coming to pre-eminence of some commodity as payment. The oldest monetary basis was for agricultural capital: cattle and grain. In Ancient Mesopotamia, drafts were issued against stored grain as a unit of account. A "drachma" was a weight of grain. Japan's feudal system was based on rice per year – koku. At the same time, legal codes enforced the payment for injury in a standardized form, usually in precious metals. The development of money then comes from the role of agricultural capital and precious metals having a privileged place in the economy.

Such drafts were used for giro systems of banking as early as Ptolemaic Egypt in the first century BC.

Jiaozi (Song Dynasty), the world's earliest paper money.

However the use of paper money as a circulating medium is intimately related to shortages of metal for coins. In the 600s there were local issues of paper currency in China and by 960 the Song Dynasty, short of copper for striking coins, issued the first generally circulating notes. A note is a promise to redeem later for some other object of value, usually specie. The issue of credit notes is often for a limited duration, and at some discount to the promised amount later. The original notes were restricted in area and duration, but the Yuan Dynasty, facing massive shortages of specie to fund their occupation of China, began printing paper money without restrictions on duration. By 1455, in an effort to rein in economic expansion and end hyperinflation, the new Ming Dynasty ended paper money, and closed much of Chinese trade.

In Europe the first banknotes were issued by Stockholms Banco, a predecessor of the Bank of Sweden, in 1660, although the bank ran out of coins to redeem its notes in 1664 and ceased operating in that year. It was in the early 1690's when the Massachusetts Bay Colony issued the first permanently circulating banknotes. The use of fixed denominations and printed banknotes came into use in the 18th century.

The first polymer banknote, the 1988 Australian $10 note

The ease with which paper money can be created, by both legitimate authorities and counterfeiters, has led both to a temptation in times of crisis such as war or revolution to produce paper money which was not supported by precious metal or other goods, thus leading to hyperinflation and a loss of faith in the value of paper money, e.g. the Continental Currency produced by the Continental Congress during the American Revolution, the Assignats produced during the French Revolution, the paper currency produced by the Confederate States of America, the financing of the First World War by the Central Powers (by 1922 1 gold Austro-Hungarian krone of 1914 was worth 14,400 paper Kronen), the devaluation of the Yugoslav Dinar in the 1990s, etc. Banknotes may also be overprinted to reflect political changes that occur faster than new currency can be printed.

Most banknotes are made of heavy paper, sometimes mixed with linen, cotton, or other textile fibres. Generally, the paper used is different from ordinary paper: it is much more resilient, resists wear and tear, and also does not contain the usual agents that make ordinary paper glow slightly under ultraviolet light.

The first kinegram banknote, the 1988 Austrian 5000 Schilling note (Mozart)

In 1988, Australia produced the first polymer banknote, made from biaxially-oriented polypropylene (plastic), and in 1996 became the first country to have a full set of circulating polymer banknotes. Since then, other countries to adopt polymer banknotes include New Zealand, Romania, Brazil and Mexico, with many others issuing commemorative polymer notes. Polymer banknotes were developed to improve durability and prevent counterfeiting through incorporated security features, such as optically variable devices that are extremely difficult to reproduce.

In 1988, Austria produced the 5000 Schilling banknote (Mozart), which is the first foil application (Kinegram®) to a paper bank note in the history of bank note printing. The application of optical features is now in common use throughout the world.

地图发展史

ES 551 -- James S. Aber

What is a Map?

A map is a graphic representation or scale model of spatial concepts. It is a means for conveying geographic information. Maps are a universal medium for communication, easily understood and appreciated by most people, regardless of language or culture. Incorporated in a map is the understanding that it is a "snapshot" of an idea, a single picture, a selection of concepts from a constantly changing database of geographic information (Merriam 1996).

Old maps provide much information about what was known in times past, as well as the philosophy and cultural basis of the map, which were often much different from modern cartography. Maps are one means by which scientists distribute their ideas and pass them on to future generations (Merriam 1996).

Early Maps

Cartography is the art and science of making maps. The oldest known maps are preserved on Babylonian clay tablets from about 2300 B.C. Cartography was considerably advanced in ancient Greece. The concept of a spherical Earth was well known among Greek philosophers by the time of Aristotle (ca. 350 B.C.) and has been accepted by all geographers since. Greek and Roman cartography reached a culmination with Claudius Ptolemaeus (Ptolemy, about A.D. 85-165). His "world map" depicted the Old World from about 60°N to 30°N latitudes. He wrote a monumental work, Guide to Geography (Geographike hyphygesis), which remained an authorative reference on world geography until the Renaissance.

Ptolemy's map of the world, about A.D. 150, republished in 1482. Notice the use of latitude and longitude lines and the distinctive projection of this map. Taken from Whitfield (1994, p. 8-9). Click on small image to see full-sized (206 kb) version.

Medieval Maps

During the Medieval period, European maps were dominated by religious views. The T-O map was common. In this map format, Jerusalem was depicted at the center and east was oriented toward the map top. Viking explorations in the North Atlantic gradually were incorporated into the world view beginning in the 12th century. Meanwhile, cartography developed along more practical and realistic lines in Arabic lands, including the Mediterranean region. All maps were, of course, drawn and illuminated by hand, which made the distribution of maps extremely limited.

Hereford Mappa Mundi, about 1300, Hereford Cathedral, England. A classic "T-O" map with Jerusalem at center and east toward the top. Taken from Whitfield (1994, p. 21). Click on small image to see full-sized (159 kb) version.

Al-Idrisi's map of the world, 1456. Al-Idrisi was a muslim scholar in the court of King Roger II of Sicily. He completed a map of the known world in the 12th century. Drawn with south at the top, this later example has been inverted for easier viewing. Taken from Whitfield (1994, p. 29). Click on small image to see full-sized (117 kb) version.

Northern regions map from S. Munster's Cosmographia (1588). North Atlantic region is essentially a Viking view dating from the 12-14th centuries. One of the last wood-engraved maps, done in the style of copper-plate engraving. Published posthumously by H. Petri (son in law) in Basle, Switzerland. Original map in the collection of the author.

Renaissance Maps

The invention of printing made maps much more widely available beginning in the 15th century. Maps were at first printed using carved wooden blocks. Printing with engraved copper plates appeared in the 16th century and continued to be the standard until photographic techniques were developed. Major advances in cartography took place during the Age of Exploration in the 15th and 16th centuries. Map makers responded with navigation charts, which depicted coast lines, islands, rivers, harbors, and features of sailing interest. Compass lines and other navigation aids were included. Such maps were held in great value for economic, military, and diplomatic purposes, and so were often treated as national or commercial secrets--classified or proprietary maps.

Genoese nautical chart of the world, 1457. Taken from Whitfield (1994, p. 40-41). Click on small image to see full-sized (135 kb) version.

The first whole world maps began to appear in the early 16th century, following voyages by Columbus and others to the New World. Gerardus Mercator of Flanders (Belgium) was the leading cartographer of the mid-16th century. He developed a cylindrical projection that is still widely used for navigation charts and global maps. He published a map of the world in 1569 based on this projection. Many other map projections were soon developed.

Waldseemuller's world map, 1507, the first map to incorporate New World discoveries. This map is based on the Ptolemaic projection, but does not show the entire globe. Taken from Whitfield (1994, p. 48-49). Click on small image to see full-sized (148 kb) version.

Detail of Ptolemy and "old world" from Waldseemuller's world map, 1507. This detail depicts the Old World in the Ptolemaic projection. Taken from Whitfield (1994, p. 11). Click on small image to see full-sized (126 kb) version.

Detail of Americi Vespucci and "new world" from Waldseemuller's world map, 1507. This detail depicts the New World in the Ptolemaic projection. Taken from Whitfield (1994, p. 37). Click on small image to see full-sized (132 kb) version.

World map of Rosselli, 1508, the first map to show the entire globe. A mythical southern continent is shown, and ocean areas are much too small. Nonetheless, it is a true world map. Taken from Whitfield (1994, p. 50-51). Click on small image to see full-sized (194 kb) version.

Heart-shaped world map of Apian, 1530. A fully expanded Ptolemaic projection of the world results in this heart-shaped map. Popular during the Renaissance, this kind of map is a novelty today. Taken from Whitfield (1994, p. 57). Click on small image to see full-sized (163 kb) version.

World map in Mercator projection by van Keulen, about 1720. The ultimate map for navigation of the world, as first devised by Mercator (1569). On this projection, all straight lines are true bearings. This results in great size distortion toward the poles, which cannot be shown. Taken from Whitfield (1994, p. 108-109). Click on small image to see full-sized (148 kb) version.

Modern Maps

Maps became increasingly accurate and factual during the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries with the application of scientific methods. Many countries undertook national mapping programs. Nonetheless, much of the world was poorly known until the widespread use of aerial photography following World War II. Modern cartography is based on a combination of ground observations and remote sensing.

 Map of the Danish Kingdom, 1629, by Janssonius. A high level of geographic accuracy is demonstrated along with marginal illustrations that enhance the map. Reproduction of original map from the Geodetical Institute of Denmark. Click on small image to see full-sized (184 kb) version.

 Hondius' world map in two hemispheres, 1630, the quintessential Renaissance map. Taken from Whitfield (1994, p. 75). Click on small image to see full-sized (187 kb) version.

Geographic information systems (GIS) emerged in the 1970-80s period. GIS represents a major shift in the cartography paradigm. In traditional (paper) cartography, the map was both the database and the display of geographic information. For GIS, the database, analysis, and display are physically and conceptually separate aspects of handling geographic data. Geographic information systems comprise computer hardware, software, digital data, people, organizations, and institutions for collecting, storing, analyzing, and displaying georeferenced information about the Earth (Nyerges 1993).

What is a Map?

Are maps realistic representations of the actual world? No--never! Field measurements are subject to errors of accuracy and precision. Aerial photographs and satellite images portray only certain portions of the light spectrum, as filtered through the atmosphere and detection instruments. No map can depict all physical, biological, and cultural features for even the smallest area. A map can display only a few selected features, which are portrayed usually in highly symbolic styles according to some kind of classification scheme. In these ways, all maps are estimations, generalizations, and interpretations of true geographic conditions.

All maps are made according to certain basic assumptions, for example sea-level datum, which are not always true or verifiable. Finally any map is the product of human endeavor, and as such may be subject to unwitting errors, misrepresentation, bias, or outright fraud. In spite of these limitations, maps have proven to be remarkably adaptable and useful through several millennia of human civilization. Maps of all kinds are fundamentally important for modern society.

 The fool's cap world map, about 1590. Ptolemaic projection on the face of a clown. Maker, date and place of publication are unknown. Maps are human representations of the world, as seen through the eyes of a fool in this example. Taken from Whitfield (1994, p. 78-79). Click on small image to see full-sized (163 kb) version.